In the depths of the ocean and high above the Earth’s atmosphere, a quiet revolution is reshaping the internet as we know it. Far from the public eye, the physical infrastructure that powers our digital lives — the subsea cables that carry 99% of global internet traffic and the rapidly multiplying satellites orbiting our planet — is falling under the control of a handful of tech giants. As Meta plans to build a $10 billion private underwater cable network and thousands of Starlink satellites are launched into orbit, ARTICLE 19 is embarking on a critical initiative to examine the critical implications of this growing corporate dominance over the internet’s physical foundations.
This makes satellites and deep-sea cables new and crucial arenas of internet governance that require civil society scrutiny. The consolidation of tech power in these far-flung domains is not just a business story. It is a fundamental shift with profound implications for human rights in the digital age. As such, we are excited to pursue this work in depth, and investigate these emerging challenges to internet openness and human rights. The concerns are manifold:
“When a single company controls your social media platform, cloud storage, and the physical cables carrying your data, the traditional checks and balances of the internet ecosystem begin to erode,” explained Michaela Nakayama Shapiro, Programme Officer at ARTICLE 19.
“The concentration of infrastructure ownership in space introduces new vulnerabilities to freedom of expression, access to information, and the fundamental resilience of the internet. The recent blackout affecting Portugal and Spain, led to a 35% increase in satellite internet usage across both countries, underscoring the critical role of diverse providers in maintaining service during infrastructure failures, and ensuring reliable connectivity,” said Dr Raquel Renno, Senior Programme Officer at ARTICLE 19.
Why this matters now
The decisions being made today about satellite deployment and subsea cable ownership and routing will shape digital access, rights, and freedoms for decades to come. Two critical infrastructure components are at the heart of this transformation, both requiring immediate attention and advocacy:
Subsea cables: Subsea cables are the physical infrastructure that provide the high-bandwidth connections necessary to transmit data across the globe. Once primarily operated by telecom consortia, they are now increasingly dominated by tech giants: Google controls more than 30 cable routes worldwide, with Amazon and other tech companies similarly expanding their ownership stakes in this critical infrastructure. Having dedicated cables allows these companies, which are massive consumers of cable capacity, to have more control over internet traffic flows, and risks further sidelining civil society, smaller national providers, and regulators in discussions affecting the spatial organisation of the internet. In addition to controlling traffic flows, they can also leverage their control as a political lever, in ways that are adverse to human rights.
Our investigation into the human rights implications of subsea cable governance focuses on engaging with industry and regulatory forums shaping cable deployment.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites: The LEO satellite market is experiencing explosive growth, projected to expand from $12.6 billion in 2023 to over $23 billion by 2029. Satellite internet is important for expanding connectivity in underserved and remote areas. It offers a viable solution for regions where traditional broadband infrastructure is limited or non-existent, due to topographic limitations and sparse population, among other challenges preventing fixed broadband reach. Starlink currently operates most active LEO satellites, with Amazon’s Project Kuiper rapidly building its presence. These companies control the entire value chain –from satellite design and manufacturing to launch capabilities and user connectivity.
Our work on monitoring technical and regulatory processes on LEO satellites involves closely tracking developments at key international forums including ITU and IEEE.
Without effective civil society engagement, there is significant risk that, in the development of these key new internet technologies, human rights protections will be overlooked in favour of commercial or security interests. As internet infrastructure becomes increasingly controlled by a few powerful actors, the fundamentals of the free and open internet are at stake.
To the galaxy and beyond
ARTICLE 19’s dual-pronged approach takes aim at both emerging and established infrastructure systems. Through careful monitoring of technical and regulatory decisions shaping the explosive growth of LEO satellite networks, paired with research into the often-overlooked human rights dimensions of subsea cable governance, we seek to ensure that the internet’s physical foundations remain as open, resilient and rights-respecting as the web itself was intended to be.
Dr. Corinne Cath, Head of Global Team Digital at ARTICLE 19, emphasised the importance of the work:
“At stake is nothing less than whether the internet continues to function as a vehicle for human rights or becomes another controlled space where power concentrates in too few hands. As we work to reclaim internet infrastructure for an inclusive and resilient future, we recognise that this challenge requires diverse expertise and collaborative action. Together, we can ensure that the internet’s physical foundations –both wired and orbited –continue to serve the global public interest rather than narrow commercial or political agendas.”