ARTICLE 19 is closely monitoring the rapidly escalating situation in Iran and across the wider region, marked by serious violations of the use of force, including military strikes by the United States and Israel against Iran, Iran’s subsequent response, and Israel’s offensive in Lebanon.
We raise urgent alarm not only about the violations of international law on the use of force and international humanitarian law, but also the violations of freedom of expression and the information manipulation that have marked this conflict. This includes Iran’s imposition of internet shutdowns, the criminalisation and restrictions on war reporting by parties to the conflict and countries in the region, and the use of artificial intelligence to generate war propaganda and spread false information about the conflict. ARTICLE 19 calls for an immediate end to hostilities, protection of civilians, and accountability for the crimes committed. International law, the foundation of global peace and security, must be respected.
In the early hours of 28 February 2026, the United States and Israel launched a coordinated series of air and missile strikes against targets across Iran, resulting in extensive destruction and significant civilian and military casualties. With Iran’s retaliatory attacks targeting military and civilian infrastructure in third countries, the conflict has rapidly expanded to the broader region. On 2 March, Hezbollah launched strikes on Israel from Lebanon in retaliation for the killing of Iran’s Supreme Leader Ali Khamanei. Israel’s ongoing response has included widespread bombardment of civilian areas and aground military invasion.
The humanitarian consequences of the war have been severe. As of 15 March, according to the Human Rights Activist News Agency (HRANA), at least 1,330 civilians have been killed in Iran. This includes at least 168 children killed in an air strike on a school in Minab – preliminary investigations point to the United States as a responsible party. According to Lebanese authorities, at least 634 people were killed and more than 816,000 displaced in Lebanon. Casualties have also been reported in the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Syria, and Oman.
ARTICLE 19 agrees with the interpretation that the joint United States-Israel attack on Iran constitutes a violation of the United Nations Charter, specifically Article 2(4), which strictly prohibits the threat or use of force by any state against the territorial integrity or political independence of another state. This principle is a cornerstone of the international legal order and permits only narrowly defined exceptions, such as actions in self-defence under Article 51 or those authorised by the UN Security Council under Chapter VII. In the absence of credible evidence of an imminent or actual attack against either the USA or Israel, the use of force against Iran cannot be justified under these exceptions and must therefore be regarded as unlawful.
We are equally concerned about violations of international humanitarian law resulting from these operations and the subsequent hostilities. We recall that all parties to an armed conflict are bound by and must respect the principles of distinction and proportionality. In addition, under the principle of precaution they must do everything feasible to verify that the targets they pursue are in fact military objectives. Adherence to these rules is an essential safeguard against further escalation and civilian harm.
As the conflict continues to threaten the whole Gulf region and carries far-reaching international implications, ARTICLE 19 condemns the ongoing violations of freedom of expression and access to information, which further endanger lives, and prevent independent reporting and documentation of the war. The cases we detail below do by no means constitute an exhaustive list. Rather, they are intended to illustrate how efforts to control the narrative around the war have led all parties involved to engage in freedom of expression violations, and how their reach extends far beyond the conflict zones and make it a global issue
Internet blackouts and AI risk endangering civilians
On 28 February 2026, just as the United States and Israel launched their military attack, Iranian authorities once again imposed a blanket internet shutdown in the country, a tactic repeatedly used by the government, most recently during the January 2026 protests, when the regime killed over 36,500 people, according to some estimates.
The communication blackout has put the civilian population at even greater risk, leaving people unable to access lifesaving information about incoming attacks, communicate with loved ones inside and outside the country, or contact emergency services. It also impedes effective humanitarian assistance and prevents journalists and others from documenting events in real time, shielding potential violations from scrutiny.
ARTICLE 19 highlights that the internet shutdown violates both international human rights and international humanitarian law. Access to the internet and telecommunications must be immediately restored.
In parallel to the Iran-imposed digital isolation, the conflict has been marked by an increased integration of artificial intelligence into military operations. Reports indicate that military actors, including the United States and Israel, have used AI systems in combat operations for intelligence analysis, operational planning, and target identification. This highlights how private technology companies are becoming embedded in the information and decision-making infrastructure of warfare, with significant implications for transparency, accountability, and the safety of civilians. All parties must therefore disclose AI systems used in hostilities, submit them for independent third-party audits, and impose an immediate moratorium on fully autonomous targeting pending the establishment of robust international regulatory frameworks.
Censorship inhibits war reporting and endangers social media users
From the start, the reporting on the war has been stifled by censorship, imposed by all parties to the conflict and third states.
In Iran, independent reporting has for years been severely restricted, with international media often denied access to the country and the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance regulating the press and requiring approval before coverage. This has escalated now, with the Iran judiciary criminalising ‘any filming or reporting’ on US or Israeli strikes on Iranian positions as evidence of ‘cooperation with a hostile enemy’. Agence France-Presse (AFP) has reported being unable to visit the scene of the strike on a school in Minab. This, compounded with the ongoing internet shutdown, makes gathering real-time information about on-the-ground reality severely challenging.
Israel, which has imposed strict limits on reporting on army operations for decades (most notably preventing international media access to Gaza), has also escalated restrictions. The Military Censor, a unit within the Israel Defense Forces’ (IDF) Directorate of Military Intelligence, has prohibited coverage of live broadcasting during air raid sirens, restricting filming of missile interceptions or impact, and images that identify locations of missile impact sites. The guidelines sent to media outlets operating in Israel list a range of subjects and topics that could not be published without official clearance. In recent days the work of international journalists have been intercepted, with CNN Türk journalists being detained by Israeli security forces in Tel Aviv, and police forces attempting to disperse several international media crews, including BBC, Fox News and CNN.
In the United States, Brendan Carr, the chair of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has threatened that US broadcasters could lose their licences if they continue to run what the administration deems to be ‘hoaxes and news distortions’ – a blatant attempt to interfere with broadcasters’ independence.
Countries in the Gulf and the broader region, including the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, have also stepped up their censorship efforts, banning publishing of videos or information related to military operations, impacting not only journalists but also ordinary social media users documenting what is happening around them. In Dubai, 20 people, including tourists, have been charged under cybercrime laws for filming and posting material related to Iranian attacks. In Bahrain, prosecutors are reportedly seeking the death penalty for users accused of photographing damage from Iranian attacks, accusing defendants of ‘high betrayal’.
Such actions impact journalists’ ability to gather reliable information, document and report on human rights violations, and tackle impunity for crimes committed. Independent reporting is vital for accountability and must be protected.
War-related disinformation and propaganda
From the very start of the conflict, social media has been flooded with disinformation.
Iran’s state media has increased its disinformation campaigns, spreading false narratives, including through AI-generated videos and imagery, with the aim of boosting domestic morale and confusingaudiences. This has been exacerbated by the information asymmetry created through the internet shutdowns. While the vast majority of Iranians are unable to share information or opinions on the war and actions of the regime, a select group of regime insiders and supporters continues to enjoy unrestricted internet access using what Iranians call ‘white SIM cards’. Many of them are able to spread narratives on social media that support the government and allow it to further control the narrative about its strength and response.
AI-generated content has become a key disinformation tool, with states and other actors using the increasingly sophisticated technology. Fabricated satellite imagery presenting the impact of strikes on US bases, or generated video footage showing successful missile strikes on US naval ships in the Gulf, have been seen by millions of users online. Such content has been particularly prominent on X, which last week announced it will temporarily suspend creators from its monetisation programme if they post AI-generated videos of armed conflict without a label.
Some social media accounts and media figures supportive of the US government and its actions have also actively spread disinformation, including pushing the narrative that the Iranian government was responsible for firing the missile that struck the school in Minab.
The prevalence of disinformation indicates that digital platforms continue to be ill-equipped or the companies that operate them unwilling to address the war propaganda and disinformation, now supercharged by artificial intelligence. ARTICLE 19 urges social media companies to recognise their pivotal role in modern conflict and uphold their responsibility to respect international human rights and humanitarian law. They must also significantly increase their transparency with respect to the steps they take in response to the current conflict. As the Meta Oversight Board highlighted in its recentdecision on deceptive AI-generated video during the Israel-Iran 2025 war, platforms must increase their efforts to label AI-generated content so it can be more easily identifiable for users.
The rise of transnational repression
The Iranian authorities have intensified transnational repression, targeting journalists, activists, and independent media operating in exile. Iranian diaspora communities across Europe and North America report a sharp increase in threats, including death threats, doxxing, coordinated harassment campaigns, and intimidation linked to networks associated with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC).
Exiled journalists and media workers covering the conflict have become special targets of this repression, aimed at silencing criticism of the Iranian regime. These include online harassment campaigns, coordinated social media attacks and other intimidation tactics to discourage reporting and public commentary. Iranian authorities have also long tried to exploit platform moderation systems to label diaspora media outlets and opposition voices as ‘terrorist’ actors or to suppress content documenting human rights abuses.
ARTICLE 19 calls on States hosting members of the Iranian diaspora to enhance physical security for threatened journalists, human rights defenders and others, and minimise the impact of transnational repression. We also call on social media platforms to strengthen their protection and safety mechanisms against coordinated inauthentic behaviour targeting those in exile, including transparent reporting on harassment and online abuse.
Unlawful intervention is not a solution
Civilians in Iran, and across the Middle East, have endured decades of repression and are now, once again, trapped amid bombardment. With the conflict continuing to escalate, ARTICLE 19 calls for an immediate ceasefire and protection of civilians. In the words of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran ‘Unlawful military intervention must not be mistaken for a solution to the human rights situation in Iran.’
As the logic of force and narrow political interest trumps over respect of international law and human rights, we call on all states to unequivocally reaffirm their commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter. They are the foundations of global peace and security – and must be protected, including through full accountability for violations.